in the mid-twentieth century, Austin Bradford Hill was the leading medical statistician in Britain.In 1946,to assess the effect of streptomycin in treating pulmonary tuberculosis, he designed what is now regarded as the first controlled randomized medical experiment. 在二十世紀中, 在Britain,Austin Bradford Hill是主導的醫療統計員.在1946 年, 估計肺病特效藥的作用在對待的肺結核病, 他設計了被認為受控制且隨機化的醫療實驗。 about that time, doctors noticed the alarming increase in the number of lung cancer cases.the cause was unknown but suspected to be atmospheric pollution, particularly coal smoke. 在那段時間,醫生注意到肺癌數字的增加是未知的,但是猜想是大氣的污染,特別地煤吸煙。 in 1950,Bradford Hill and the medical doctor and epidemiologist Richard Doll published results of the case-control study (example 10)that identified smoking as a potentially important culprit.they were also pioneers in developing a sound theoretical basis for the case-control method. 1950 年, Bradford Hill和醫生和流行病學家理Richard Doll出版了控制研究(例子10) 辨認了抽煙作為一名潛在地重要罪犯。並發展一種健全的理論上的基礎方面先鋒。 they followed their initial study with other case-control studies and with a longterm prospective study that showed that smoking is not only the predominant risk factor for lung cancer but also correlated with other diseases. 他們用其他的情形-控制的研究和長期顯示抽菸是的預期的研究跟隨了他們的最初研究不只有優越的危險因子對於肺癌但是也有相互關係的與其他的疾病。 at first , Bradford Hill was cautious about claiming that smoking causes lung cancer. As the evidence mounted from various studies, he accepted the causal link as being overwhelmingly the most likely explanation. 起初, Bradford Hill是謹慎的關於聲稱抽煙導致肺癌。因為證據從各種不同的研究展開,他當做壓倒性地接受了原因的連結最有可能的解釋。
an influential article written by Bradford Hill in 1965 proposed criteria that should be satisfied before you conclude that an association reflects a causal link. over the past 50 years, the statistical work of Doll and Hill has resulted in saving millions of lives, as more and more people become aware of the dangers of smoking. For his work, in 1961 Austin Bradford Hill was knighted by Queen Elizabeth. Richard Doll was knighted in 1969. The world owes grateful thanks to Sir Austin (1897-1991) and Sir Richard (1912-2005) for their statistical contributions to determining answers to important medical issues. 在過去 50 年內,Doll的統計工作和Hill已經造成援救數以百萬計的生命,因為越來越多的人知道抽菸的危險。 對於他的工作,在 1961 奧斯汀布雷福德希爾被伊莉莎白皇后授以爵位了。 理查娃娃在 1969 年被授以爵位。世界虧欠感謝的由於奧斯汀先生 (1897-1991) 和理查先生 (1912-2005) 為他們的統計貢獻到決定對重要的醫生議題的答案。
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我試著翻譯page.182~(翻譯錯誤或句子不順,請見諒~)
in the mid-twentieth century, Austin Bradford Hill was the leading medical statistician in Britain.In 1946,to assess the effect of streptomycin in treating pulmonary tuberculosis, he designed what is now regarded as the first controlled randomized medical experiment.
在二十世紀中, 在Britain,Austin Bradford Hill是主導的醫療統計員.在1946 年, 估計肺病特效藥的作用在對待的肺結核病, 他設計了被認為受控制且隨機化的醫療實驗。
about that time, doctors noticed the alarming increase in the number of lung cancer cases.the cause was unknown but suspected to be atmospheric pollution, particularly coal smoke.
在那段時間,醫生注意到肺癌數字的增加是未知的,但是猜想是大氣的污染,特別地煤吸煙。
in 1950,Bradford Hill and the medical doctor and epidemiologist Richard Doll published results of the case-control study (example 10)that identified smoking as a potentially important culprit.they were also pioneers in developing a sound theoretical basis for the case-control method.
1950 年, Bradford Hill和醫生和流行病學家理Richard Doll出版了控制研究(例子10) 辨認了抽煙作為一名潛在地重要罪犯。並發展一種健全的理論上的基礎方面先鋒。
they followed their initial study with other case-control studies and with a longterm prospective study that showed that smoking is not only the predominant risk factor for lung cancer but also correlated with other diseases.
他們用其他的情形-控制的研究和長期顯示抽菸是的預期的研究跟隨了他們的最初研究不只有優越的危險因子對於肺癌但是也有相互關係的與其他的疾病。 at first , Bradford Hill was cautious about claiming that smoking causes lung cancer. As the evidence mounted from various studies, he accepted the causal link as being overwhelmingly the most likely explanation.
起初, Bradford Hill是謹慎的關於聲稱抽煙導致肺癌。因為證據從各種不同的研究展開,他當做壓倒性地接受了原因的連結最有可能的解釋。
an influential article written by Bradford Hill in 1965 proposed criteria that should be satisfied before you conclude that an association reflects a causal link. over the past 50 years, the statistical work of Doll and Hill has resulted in saving millions of lives, as more and more people become aware of the dangers of smoking. For his work, in 1961 Austin Bradford Hill was knighted by Queen Elizabeth. Richard Doll was knighted in 1969. The world owes grateful thanks to Sir Austin (1897-1991) and Sir Richard (1912-2005) for their statistical contributions to determining answers to important medical issues.
在過去 50 年內,Doll的統計工作和Hill已經造成援救數以百萬計的生命,因為越來越多的人知道抽菸的危險。 對於他的工作,在 1961 奧斯汀布雷福德希爾被伊莉莎白皇后授以爵位了。 理查娃娃在 1969 年被授以爵位。世界虧欠感謝的由於奧斯汀先生 (1897-1991) 和理查先生 (1912-2005) 為他們的統計貢獻到決定對重要的醫生議題的答案。
我已翻好155,156等下打好傳上
4.2什麼是好的抽樣什麼是差的抽樣
樣本調查是觀察研究中的一種常使用的方式,首先第一步,一個簡單的調查首先要界定研究的母體,這通常很簡單,例如gallup組織針對1000位美國成人每個月作一個”有關是否同意現任總統有無適權於其位”的調查,這調查的母體便是指所有住在美國的成年人.
Sampling frame and sampling design 樣本架構 及樣本設計
當定義好母體後,第二步便是收集標的subject的名單,,使你可以在名單中集中取樣,這收集名單便是樣本架構.
樣本架構
母體中標的subject的名單,被拿來當樣本使用.
理想中,樣本架構代表了全部母體,在研究中,以人口普查為例,通常很難界定每一個母體中的標的,
假設你計畫在學校中作一個學生的抽樣,要求學生完成有關各種議題的問卷,在此,母體是指全部的學生,一種可能的架構是從通訊錄下手,,另一種就是從學校紀錄下手.
當你有了抽樣架構後,你需要去確定從抽樣架構中選擇subjects的方法,這選擇的方法便稱為抽樣設計sampling design ,這裡有個在學校中學生抽樣的抽樣設計.續p156,當你抽樣你的統計班級的所有學生,這是容易處理的樣本調查,因為班級是一個簡單具可近性的樣本,但你有想到你的班級是否有確切的反映出全部學生的特性嗎?是否有代表性的混合了新生.舊生,男生女生,運動員或非運動員,在職生或全職生,或是否有政黨參與的傾向等等.?這樣是受到質疑的.?
當你取得這樣本是藉著方便性取得方式,這結果可能無法反應母體的特性,有些回答的結論會比母體數據高,有些則較低於母體.,例如一個有關每週在校外工作時數的問題,假如你的班級內學生多為三四年級的學生,那他們工作時數當然比新生及二年級生更多.這意味著,回應的結果會比全部母體的數值更高,而這樣的資訊有可能會誤導我們.
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING 簡單隨機抽樣
如果你用隨機的方式勝於用便利性的方式來抽樣,你會較容易去取得代表性的樣本,,樣本設計要使每一個學生有相同的機會被使用於抽樣中,如此也可使資料分析解釋描述統計量(如樣本平均數)如何的與我們推論全部的母體能有一至性的數值.這就是為何使用隨機抽樣的理由.
你可能有很多機會,被當成一部分,你的名子被放入箱子或是帽子中和一堆其他人的名子放在一起,並被某人蒙眼抽取.假如這些名子在抽出之前完全混合在一起,這一種隨機抽樣稱為簡單隨機抽樣.
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLE
每個母體中的SUBJECT 在任何樣本中被選取的機會是相同的
一個簡單隨機抽樣通常也稱隨機抽樣,簡單SIMPLE是一個區別的形容詞,用來和複雜的隨機抽樣作區隔,在4.4中會有說明’.
社團幹部紐奧良之旅的抽樣
描述情節
一個學校社團可以選兩個會員去參加社團年度研討會,在紐奧良舉行,所有支出費用將由國家組織副負擔,,這社團成員決定從五個職員中選兩個人參加,這五個人為,社長P副社長V秘書S會計T及活動股長A,他們設定了母體和抽樣架構,社團成員希望選擇過程要公平,所以她們選擇作簡單隨機抽樣,N=2將五個名子寫在單獨的字條上,放在帽子裡混合,並找個中立的人蒙眼從帽子中抽兩個人出來.
因為沒收到班代的PDF檔,所以只把翻譯的文KEY上,希望大家看得懂
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